Political Inquiry Terms and Definitions

investigate Design * keen header, bad explore * Involves connecting theory and selective learning. * Maximising leverage by using very few varyings to explain many effects. * Reports on the degree of consequence of results. * set ups true causal kin, not undecomposed correlation. * Provides accu sum up in bringation and accounts for opposite variables. * Determines if the relationship is uni p frontmost-class honours degreeional. * Purpose of look * To establish a relationship in the midst of two or much(prenominal) variables * To demonst rove that the results be princip everyy true in the real realness and not in except a concomitant context. To reveal whether nonp atomic number 18il phenomenon precedes an new(a)(prenominal)(prenominal) in m, establish time state * To eliminate as many modifynate definitions for the rein finding as accomplishable * Choice of invent * What affects * Is query searching, descriptive or explanatory * What atomic number 18 the applicatory limitations in investigating theory. * Experimental initiation * Classical experimental mark, 2 chemical compendiums, pre and channel screen, randomisation, * Simple venture t on the wholey exclusively post trial run * Repeated broadsheet visualize, measure how dogged effect takes to start. triune pre and post tests. Multi separate design, much than 2 meetings, provoke discriminate varied levels of experimental variable. * disarrange dramatics experiments, applies logic of randomisation and variable manipulation * Non-randomised quasi-experiments. Purposeful selectionax, tar recrudesce a trusted root word. * Non-experimental design undivided group, no obtain everywhere appointee and inbred c everyplaceing of IV, inability to measure DV. * Case depicted object small N designs. Provide expatiate explanation * Comparative epitome compargon two or somewhat(prenominal) units in relative detail * contract group gather bree ding more or less reception to certain IV. abide bys life sur daring number of peck measured to find causal relationships. * substance entropy synopsis variables atomic number 18 averages or percentages of geographical aras, find causal relationships. * longitudinal designs, time span. * Trend abbreviation beat on very(prenominal) variables at disparate time menstruations to examine changes. * Panel analysis go ons a group of participants. * Intervention analysis measurement of change in the DV is traced and taken in the showtime place and after. No interaction, genuine thoughtfulness. * Ethnographies form of info collection through with(predicate) participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.Field studies * Content analysis textual analysis, poll of put downs, write. * What they make water in harsh * They all share the basic objectives of look for design despite having different levels of native and external daring. Using some(prenom inal) designs unitedly result cover separately early(a)s shortfall. * They all attempt to railroad tie sound conclusions supported by manifest evidence * Terms * Causal vs false * Both turn in correlation surrounded by IV and DV, simply in spurious the change in DV be character 3rd actor ca employ changed in both. Causal is a school relationship. 5 different relationships. double causes without chain.Multiple causes with chain. Multiple causes that affect DV, but are changed with the mental home of an otherwisewise(a) variable. Spurious causality with root word variable. Chain causality with intervening variable. * Co variableness * Demonstrates that the IV does in fact covary with DV. not causal relationship yet. * Time order * Show that the IV precedes DV. Effect bednot appear forrader cause. * Alternative causes * Confounding component split. Factors that possible cause a change in DV as well. * Randomised reignled experiments * Experiments that al unhopefu l the police detective to control the exposure to the IV through assignments to groups. pickax and separate all randomised. * Experimental design * The panache in which the researcher controls exposure to test IV. 5 different designs. * Control group * The group of subjects that does not receive experimental treatment or test stimulus. * Pre-test * meter of the DV prior to administration of IV or experimental treatment. * Post test * step of the DV after administration. * Internal vs external legitimateity * Internal validity is the ability to array that manipulation or mutation of the IV rattling causes change in DV. * remote validity is the ability to widely distributedise from unrivaled set of research findings to other situations. annals * A brat to internal validity. Events other than the experimental stimulus that occur betwixt pretest and posttest measurements. * Along with maturation * Testing * When amount the DV prior to the stimulus alerts the subjects of the research objectives. * plectrum bias * Bias due to the assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups according to round criterion and not randomly. A threat to internal validity. * Experimental mortality * A differential loss of subjects from experimental and control groups that affects the equivalency of groups threat to internal validity * prick decay A change in the instrument use to measure the DV, care different researcher conducting pretest and posttest. * Demand feature articles * Aspects of the research situation that cause participants to guess at the investigators goals and adjust their demeanour or opinions accordingly. essay to stand by. * Simple post test * equivalent to classical. Experimental group undecided but control not, plainly post test is conducted. * Repeated measure design * Contains several pre and post test measurements to cognise exactly how quickly the effect of the freelancer variable should be discover or how reliable pr etest measurement of DV should be taken. Multi-group design * there are more than one experimental r control group created so different levels of the IV terminate be compared. foot withdraw both pre and post test or just one. * Field experiments * They are experimental designs that are applied in a inhering orbit. Adopts logic of randomisation and variable manipulation. * Non-experimental design * They are designs that do not fol small-scale the experimental model of two groups and cook controlled exposure to IV. They are more hard-nosed to do but are not as unafraid in toll of establishing causal relationships. * Case study * all-round(prenominal) and in depth study of a iodine oddball or several models.Provide expand explanations * Comparative analysis * compare betwixt two or several units in relative detail * Focus group * Often use to restrain reactions to the introduction of the IV. Has a group of masses who meet at a single location * Surveys * Measurement o f DV and IV at the similar time. Respondents report their exposure to respective(a) factors. No assignment to groups, examines groups basd on determine of IV, measurement of DV to conceive differences between groups. * sum of property entropy analysis * Variables that are displayed as averages or percentages, to find causality. Trend analysis and longitudinal design * Measurements on said(prenominal) variables at different time f offset rates to see the changes ca apply by the IV on the DV. No manipulation of variables. Multiple measurements. * Panel study * A study that follows a group of participants where the corresponding units are measured at different clock. * Panel mortality * Refers to the participants in the panel study who drop out. prescribe? * Intervention analysis. * Looks at the occurrence of the IV as an observation. Looking at the DV before and after IV. Works best when IV happens in a brief period in time and brief in nature.Measure tho before and after event. writings Review * Purpose of Literature polish, 7 * To see what has and has not been investigated * To develop general explanations for discovered variations in a conduct or a phenomenon * To identify authority relationships between concepts and to identify researchable hypothesis * To mark off how others fix set upd and measured tonality concepts * To identify selective information sources that other researches apply apply * To develop alternative research designs * To discover how a research hurtle is referd to the work of others. * What constitutes a literary full treatment review It is made of different applicable articles that provide more insight into head * It should supporter arrive at a good research issuance * It should show what has and has not been researched * It provides a general explanation for variations in behaviour or phenomenon * It identifies researchable topics * It should help develop alternative research designs * beaver rules for collecting lit * Using electronic infobases like JSTOR, Web of Science and Google Scholar. * peeping by topic and key linguistic function, tardily limiting results, read the articles and find new words to narrow down the search. distinct by starting with a single article. accustom info base to find more relevant articles or other articles scripted by the same author. Use the citations in that first article. Find articles that give cited the first article. * Best flairs to spell out a literature review * It should deposit on scholarly sources * It must relate directly to topic * give up to flex familiar with as practically of the research before selecting the final sources. * Summarising of relevant literature that focuses on over-arching topics sort of than single articles. * accumulate all articles into something that makes sense. * Organising the topics ased upon the research question. * Identifying common themes or methodologies across the articles. * Discussion of conventional wisdom, illustrating how original politics has changed and identifying the flaws in past research. take * Terms * Population * all case or observations covered by a hypothesis, all the units of analysis to which a hypothesis applies. * essay * A subset of observations or cases worn from a specified world. * take in statistics * The electronic computer of a commonwealth feature articles or prop that is cipher from savour data * Advantages and disadvantages of consumes Advantages * It is cheaper and lower-ranking time overpowering as compared to using universe * more cheerful. * Disadvantages * They underside be less accurate or more prone to error * Some studies do not use take in, like case studies. * Population parameter * A characteristic or attribute of a nation that moveful be quantified. * Estimator * A statistic based on model observations that is utilize to estimate the numeralal value of an foreigner population parameter. * Elemen t * A limited case or entity about which information is collected, the unit of analysis. When to use a savor * Practicality. When data from an extremely large population is required, it is impossible to interview or tone-beginning all(prenominal) and every subject. Thus taste is require because although the exemplification statistics entrust not exactly equal the corresponding value, they will be reasonably close if exemplification diffusion is done correctly. * Sampling environ * The point population in which the prove is veritablely drawn from. * Random digit recollect dial purpose of and how and why it works * It is a procedure used to improve the congresswomanness of tele remember amples by giving both contestationed and un enumerateed numbers a discover of woof. * It is used to overcome the problem of cell phone numbers which are unlisted * It works by randomly dialling numbers. * It works because it gives all numbers, whether listed or not a chance to get dia lled. * Sampling unit * The entity listed in a take in frame. Maybe same as an share or group. * Sample bias * The bias that occurs whenever some elements of a population are consistently excluded from a sample. It is commonly due to an incomplete sampling frame or a non- hazard method of selecting elements. Probability sample types, pros and cons * Sample for which each element has a known fortune of organism included in the sample * Types * Simple random samples each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Pros each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Cons * It is not truly random, small patterns of selection strength appear. * Obtaining a list of the absolute population is not possible, reducing the probability. * systemic samples elements are selected from a list at predetermined intervals * Pros It is easier to apply than simple random. * utile when dealing with a very large population size. * Cons * May result in biased sampling if elements on t he list have been ranked according to a characteristic. The list contains a pattern that corresponds to the sampling interval. * Stratified samples elements sharing one or more characteristics are grouped and elements are selected from each group in equipoise to the groups representation in the total population * Pros * Homogeneous populations, lilliputian sample seize is aimed to succeed accuracy. * Cons Heterogeneous populations need a much larger sample to be accurate. * proportionable samples stratify samples where each stratum is de crimpate in proportion to its size in the population. * Pros * Very representative of the population * Cons * not good with heterogeneous populations * Disproportionate samples stratified samples in which elements sharing a characteristic are under-represented or over-represented. * Pros * When the sample size is to a fault small, can be used to increase it easily. * Cons * May not be representative of the population if weight factor is not used. Cluster samples the sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements * Pros * Used when no list of elements personifys and to create one would be excessively expensive. * Reduces field work monetary values * Cons * There is greater imprecision. Samples are not representative of population. * Non-probability samples types, pros and cons * Each element has an unmapped probability of being included in the sample * Types * Purposive samples when a researcher exercises respectable discretion over what observations to study. * Pros * crumb translate more from conservatively selected unusual cases. Cons * Not accurately representative of population. * whatchamacallit sample elements are included because they are convenient and easy for the research to select * Pros * Convenience * Large numbers easy to get * Cons * Unknown accuracy * Quota sample elements are sampled in proportioned to their representation in the population. * Pros * Similar to proportionate samplin g, but subjects chosen purposefully. * Cons * Selection bias * Snowball sample respondents are used to identify other persons who might qualify for inclusion into the sample * Pros Good for relatively selective and rare populations * kin between samples and statistical inferences * Statistical inferences is the numeric theory and techniques for make conjunctures about the unknown characteristics of the population based on samples. fashioning inferences about a population. * Trying to define more clearly what supportable gist * Samples provide an estimate of population attributes and whitethorn be off from the true population parameter. The difference is the level of precision lost. * 3 types of errors in inference anticipate values or sampling error * Expected value is the average value of a sample statistic based on reiterate samples of the population. * Sampling error is the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard errors * The standard parenthesis or measure of a division or dispersion of a sampling statistical scattering * Provides a numerical extension of the variation in sample estimates * Sampling distributions. A theoretical non-observed distribution of sample statistics calculated on samples on size N that, if known, permits the calculation of confidence intervals and the test of statistical hypothesis * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * It allows researchers to calculate the probability that sample statistics fall inwardly certain distances of the population parameter. * Sampling error * the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard error The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distrib ution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * reliance * How much error this is in a sample. The degree of belief or probability that an estimate range of values includes or covers population parameter. * Sample distribution * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * Sample size. * 100 (11% +/-) * 600 (5% +/-) * 1000 (4% +/-) * 1500 (3% +/-) 4000 (2% +/-) Observations * Terms * duodecimal vs qualitative data * Quantitative data involves a large amount of data and its involves numeric manipulation * Qualitative data involves small number of cases, more in depth and it relies on quotations, comments, anecdotes and other written evidence to support arguments * Both test to explain trends or patterns through systematically collected data. * Data collection, how do we demand the best direction, characteristics of * How to strike the best manner * Depends on the qu estion * Depends on the sample Depends on which constitutes the best measures, validity of the measurements that a particular method will allow. * Depends on cost and availability, some are more observable than others, some less expensive. * Depends on the reactivity to the collection by the population. * demand honorable implications. * Characteristics * Primary and secondary data * IRB, what role it plays and the significance of it * Institutional review board, a must for any test involving human subjects. * It is guided by 3 principles respect for persons, beneficence and justice. The role it plays s to ensure that all research conducted will not harm any individuals, cognize that they are autonomous and there is distribution of benefits to participants. To ensure that no estimable boundaries are crossed. * Its significance is that it has removed all unethical research to be done, but this limits the carriage data is collected. Thus researchers must choose the benefits vs t he burden of the research. * Observation, types and pros and cons basic distinction is direct and indirect. * Direct * Allows researchers to view things in natural setting more often than laboratory. Field study or ethnography. Observation in lab gives more control over environment * Pros * Natural settings allow population to act normally, increases validity * Researchers can observe for longer periods of time * Lab can give more control. * Cons * Lab can also mean that subjects know they are being observed and thus alter behaviour, low validity * Natural setting cannot control external effects and variables. * substantiating * Observation of physical traces of behaviour, essentially scout work. Inferences are made based on physical traces * two types of measures * Erosion Created by selective wear on some material. Looking at what has been eroded or removed, looking at what is left. * Accretion * Measures a phenomenon a manifested through the deposition and ingathering of ma terials. Seeing what has built up. * Pros * It raises less ethical issues than direct * Some materials or traces of them are more/less durable than other, making them more/less easy to measure, depending on the method. * slight obtrusive, much cheaper than alternatives * Cons * There are many threats to validity, prone to measurement problems * thunder mug be surd to make strong inferences * Participant Most field studies involve this, proverbial fly on the wall. law-abiding people for long periods of time. Assume a role or identity within the group. * Pros * Gain deep ingress into the group through informants * Natural setting * refer for long periods so changes in behaviour can be studied * Has a degree of accuracy and completeness that other methods cannot provide. * Cons * It is not viable for every question, some things are just unobservable, like voting * wish of control over the environment, inability to separate factors * May be invalid or biased, going native.Becomi ng part of the environment, perceived biased. * Difficulties with tabulator of study * Non participant * Same as direct. * Overt * Participants are aware of the investigators front line and intentions * Covert * Investigators presence is hidden or undisclosed. * Structured * Investigator looks for and systematically tempers the relative incidence of particular(prenominal) behaviours * Unstructured * All behaviour is considered relevant, at least at first, and recorded. * honorable issues and how to avoid * Negative repercussions from associating with researcher because of the researchers sponsors, nationality or outsider status. incursion of privacy * Stress during research interaction * Disclosure of behaviour or information to the researcher resulting in harm to the observed during or after the study. * How to avoid ethical proofreading * Assume everything and all identities will be discovered * Look at actual words in manuscript * When describing potentially unflattering th ings go from general to specific * Be general about federation at hand * Realise that data and research will be used again * Know what perspective and office is towards subject * Caution subjects multiple times Know study limitations and agreement are in advance * study other people edit sensitive portions. venture analysis * Types of records, pros and cons of utilization * Two types of records * caterpillar track produced by organisations rather than private citizens, carefully stored and easily admissioned and is on tap(predicate) for long periods of time. * Pros * minor cost in terms of money and time. * Accessibility * Covers more extensive period in time. * Extensive amounts of records * many an(prenominal) records are digitalised * Cons * At the mercy of those who keep the records, may or may not be biased. distrusts on recording keeping practices, may not be kept properly. * periodic records that are produced and preserved in a more casual, personal and accidenta l manner. Diaries and memoirs. most-valuable to political historians. * Pros * Used to illuminate phenomena rather than generate large sample * Provides different perspectives on certain phenomena. * Use qualitatively. * Cons * Gaining access to episodic records can be fractious, jam suitable materials is the most time consuming aspect of data collection * Many are not digitalised. Content analysis, procedures, pros and cons, intercoder reliableness * Refers to the use of excerpts, quotes, and examples from recorded documents to support and observation. * Can be both qualitative and denary in nature. * Procedures * Decide on trance sample, what materials to include in the analysis. * Define the recording or coding units, decide what is very going to be measured. * Choose categories of substance that are going to be measured, decision making the recording unit. How to measure what you want. Code words? Devise a system of reckoning for the content being coded, a numeric syste m based on what is being coded. Code for number of times X appears. * Pros * Gives researchers access to subjects that would otherwise be difficult to attain. * Raw data are usually nonreactive, no undesired influences on behaviour. * write records like newspapers have existed over long periods in time * They can be easily attained * It often enables us to increase sample size to a higher place what would be possible though every interviews or direct observation . * The cost of keeping records are borne by the keepers, it is low cost for those using them. Cons * Selective survival, record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials, only selectively. Gaps may exist * Incompleteness. Gaps may exist due to fires losses of other types * Content may be biased. May be incomplete, selectively preserved, outside or falsified * Unavailable to researchers because they are classified. * They wishing a standard format because it is kept by different people. * Intercoder reliability * Refers to when two or more coders, using the same procedures, agree on how the content is analysed.The more times the coders make the same conclusions the same way, the more claims can be made. * create verbally records, pros and cons * Pros * Can be used when other means like direct observation or interviews are not possible. * fitting to use for large scale incarnate behaviour, cannot possibly interview all. * Raises fewer ethical issues than observation or interviewing. * No take chances to individuals as long as they are not identified in records. * Cheaper than other forms. * Not affected by time or history, what is recorded cannot be changed. * Cons * Gaining access may be difficult, classified Records not kept properly, or purposefully changed Survey research and interviews * definition and difference * come afters are a method of data collection that acts as an alternative to experiments or simulations. * sort of of manipulating an independent variable to view its ef fects, survey design examines the relationship between variables, rectify at establishing correlation rather than causation. * Types of surveys, pros and cons, * Personal, exhibit to face * tall cost * High to medium pass mop up rate * potentially high sample congruousness * tenacious to medium space * High data affect cost * Telephone specialty cost * fair closure rate * strong suit sample congruence * strong suit to short space * High to low data process cost * get off * lower-ranking cost * unhopeful completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * Medium data processing cost * telecommunicate * Low cost * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing cost * Internet * Low costs * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing costs * gathering administration * Very low costs * High once group is convened complet ion rate Depends on group selection process, sample congruence * Variable length * High to low data processing costs * Drop off/pick up. * Very low costs * Low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Short length * Low data processing costs. * Completion and reaction rates, significance of * Refers to the proportion of persons initially contacted who actually participate. * When the proportion of the persons contacted who actually participate is too low, the ability to make statistical inferences about the population is limited * in like manner little responses, cannot make inferences. * Cost * Time and money. Have to balance between costs and completion rate. * Data processing * Answers of the surveys still have to be tabulated. All data need to be coded in a way that a computer can process them. * Problem with open ended questions. Have to be transcribed and coded. * A major(ip) reason for adopting internet and foretell surveys. * Sample-population congruence * Refers to how well the sample subjects represent the population from which they are drawn * Biases can enter through the initial selection of respondents or through incomplete responses. * The closer the congruence, the more representative the sample, higher validity. Length * likewise long and respondents lose interest or start practiseing without care, get distracted. * Too short and not enough data is collected. * Well motivated participants can help with the problem. * Response quality * Cannot take the responses at face value. * Participants may not have the same interests or familiarity with certain topics. * sight may be reluctant to chatter their opinions to strangers. * Busy people wont answer truthfully. * Interview bias * Occurs when the interviewer influences the respondents answers, may have a larger effect on telephone surveys than in person surveys. Question types and wording, what to be careful for and why, pros and cons * Close-ended questions * Pros * Easier for people to an swer and takes little time * Easier to sort and tabulate data * Sensitive issues are better mated with close ended questions * Cons * Force respondents to choose from a list they may not agree with * Single sided and double sided questions that can affect responses * Single side, agree or disagree with a statement * Two sided, gives two alternative statements to choose. Problems of recall versus recognition, can prompt answers that would have otherwise been blank. pot dont know the answer but recall when seeing the choice. * Oversimplified and misrepresent picture of public opinion * unrestricted questions * Pros * Allows respondents to state what they know and think. * Good for situations where probably answers are not known. * Cons * Respondents may respond too much or too little. * Problem with recording answers, tedious and difficult to code, interpretations vary as well. * Processing data is time consuming. * Wording Wording is important, question clarity is vital to get va lid responses. Objectivity and clarity * Avoid * fork-like barrelled questions * Two questions in one. sometimes participants might not agree with first question but is made to in order to answer the second. * Ambiguous questions * adept that contains a concept that is not define clearly. * Participants may interpret the question wrongly. * wind questions * Reactive question. Encourages respondents to choose a particular response because the question indicates that the researcher expects it. * bighearted what the researcher wants, validity is off. Push polls. * Question order and effects * The order in which questions are presented may influence the reliability and validity of answers. Participants any answer other than or stop when they see certain questions. Can solve response set. * ramify questions * A question what sorts respondents into subgroups and directs them into different parts of the questionnaire * Filter questions * A question that screens respondents from conf licting questions. * Response set * Straight line responding. * May occur when a serial of questions have the same answer choices.Check the first few, then blindly check the rest. * file away surveys, pros and cons * Existing surveys that have been designed in the past and are readily available to use. * Pros * Very cheap, for those with no access to funding. * Less time is spent designing the surveys. * More reliable and higher quality, widely used thus more reliable. * Well written questions. * Cons * The questions are not what you want. * Interviews, definition, pros and cons. * Interviewing is the act of enquire individuals a series of questions and recording their responses.May be face to face or over the phone. * Pros * Sometimes asking questions is the only way * Elites can provide valuable information, but only through interviews. Focused interviews. * Can provide more comprehensive and detailed information, rich variety of perspectives. * Excellent form of data collectio n in exploratory studies. * Cons * Can be difficult to dole out * Have to take into account non-verbal cues and be willing to go off topic * Detailed note taking * face to face, strong necessity for interpersonal skills.